The rate of reaction Essay Example for Free

The rate of reaction Essay The experiment will end when I take the third reading of 30cmisodium thiosulphate solution, 20cmi water. The safety goggles are the most important aspect of the experiment, as it is crucial to maintain a high standard of safety when working with corrosive chemicals. Diagram: Graph to show predicted appearance of results Method and Results I carried the experimental investigation as stated in the Plan section, under Experimental Procedure. Having gained satisfactory results, I have arranged them in a table. Table of Results cmi of Na2S3O2 Time taken (seconds) Mean results solution 1 2 3 (average). To draw my graph, I used the reciprocal function on my calculator on each of the averages, to gain a number that can be used to draw up a graph to show direct proportionality between 1/Average Time taken and concentration of sodium thiosulphate. Conclusion In terms of drawing a conclusion from my results, I can say that they compliment my prediction, as shown by the similarity in my prediction graph (a straight declining line), and also generally in the description of inverse proportionality. As anticipated, inverse proportionality is shown between the concentration of sodium thiosulphate and the time taken for the solution to turn opaque. Na2S2O3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + S + H20 + S02 Scientific Explanation As the hydrochloric acid particles and the sodium thiosulphate particles collide into each other solid sulphur is given off and gives the solution a yellowish tinge. After a while this sulphur builds up and clouds the solution to the point when the cross beneath becomes cloaked. The particle collision theory states that the more of a particular chemical there is present in a solution (in my case sodium thiosulphate) then the more it will collide with the other particles (the particles that concern my experiment are the hydrochloric acids). Therefore, if a 100% concentrated solution of sodium thiosulphate is added to a solution of hydrochloric acid, all the particles will collide more often, and the reaction will occur quicker than a 60% sodium thiosulphate 40% water solution, because the 40% water has replaced what used to be sodium thiosulphate, thus reducing the speed of the reaction. Another point to make is the time of the reaction increased rapidly towards the end of my results. Evaluation The results I have obtained were of quite a high general standard, however there were a few minor anomalies. One anomaly was the second result for 30cmi of sodium thiosulphate solution. Here is the extract from my table of results, with the anomaly shown in italics. 30 472 506 493 490 It stood out as being an abnormally long time taken, in comparison with the other two results, and also seen in the effect on the graph of results it has. This could be for a number of reasons. Firstly, going back to the planning section, there is the issue of temperature control, which was left aside despite being recognised as an influencing variable. If left uncontrolled then chances are that anomalies like the above will occur. I have decided not to ignore this result because the unconformity is only slight Also, the slight inconsistencies between each group of three results are also down to the fluctuating room temperature. These errors however, are only slight and therefore are not to be worried about in terms of being insufficient for drawing solid conclusions. I still believe my results to be reliable, as they average out quite impressively. There are minor differences in each of the sets of three readings that were bound to occur due to uncontrolled temperature. The differences are merely fractional, and the averages worked out give a very clear picture of ideal results. There were bound to be the odd fluctuation in the length of time for the solution to turn opaque because of human error. Every time it is myself that judges when the solution has turned sufficiently opaque and I stop the watch systematically. Because my reflexes are not perfect it may seem like one measurement was longer than another, when it was only my slow reactions that distorted the result slightly. The particle collisions theory may also be to blame because if the region of the solution directly above the cross X had a larger amount of collisions, just by chance, then the reaction time would be quicker than average. I would suggest that in further experiments, the variable of heat be included, and the pair who carries out the investigation work as a team and play different roles in the experiment. One of them should time the reaction as I did, and the other should keep the temperature as constant as possible. That way anomalous results will be almost entirely eradicated. The other two issues of human reflexes and of chance of areas of collision are unfortunately uncontrollable. Some kind of computer will surely be able to judge when a solution has turned opaque better than a human being. To test my conclusion, I would suggest doing a similar investigation, but with magnesium strips instead of sodium thiosulphate. It will be easier to judge reaction time because one would only have to stop the watch upon seeing the magnesium completely dissolve. Also using magnesium in an experiment is a lot simpler and cheaper than using sodium thiosulphate. 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Herbert Marcuse: One Dimensional Man

Herbert Marcuse: One Dimensional Man This thinking paper will examine Brookfields interpretations of the above article, and endeavour to explain from the empirical writings of Herbert Marcuse, his thoughts on emancipating Ideological beliefs and encouraging Liberation. Marcuse beliefs highlighted further what he saw was a One Dimensional Society with only a One Dimensional Thought. Their way or the high way! This predisposes challenges in these social movements to combat oppression and thus encourage Liberation, in a genuine socialist society. Although Marcuses writings signify he was a fan of elements to Marxs Ideology, he also found Marx, in his day, was not a true libertarian who did not consider or connect himself with the individual. As a result, if Marxs theory was to continue to remain credible, Marcuse decided to act as a catalyst for the reassessing and re-examination of oppositional social movements in combating oppression and domination. His movement directed us through three pathways Rebellious subjectivity, liberating tolerance and Conceptual thought in Criticality, from the perspectives of reassessing Marxism and in the practices of Adult Education. Marcuse, found the concept of socialism, to be the most important issue, which precipitated and gave rise to his movement. He felt the concept of socialism had taken Marxs theory and developed it to become more focussed on the development of the productive forces Capitalisation and promotion of learning as a commodity, into another higher productive society which alienated and isolated individuals. Furthering his view, this could generate critical dispositions which he termed as rebellious subjectivity. To alleviate rebellious subjectivity, encouraging liberation of aesthetics from the demands of capitalism within classrooms, adult educators endeavour daily to create conducive learning environments Ultimately inspiring liberation in a genuine socialist society today! Concurring with Brookfields resonation to Marcuses idea of repressive tolerance, diversity in education could be construed as the dominant culture appearing to be more open to the learners voices, when in fact it is a refined way of reasserting its control over public discourse remoulding the junior and leaving certificates and with the introduction of CAS (common awards system) in 2010, into adult education. We can, as adults be resistant to change but we also recognise manipulation. Thus surmising as adult educators, in the field, we need to critically be very carefully in our classrooms too! In the practice of liberating tolerance, Marcuse identified to be inclusive, fair and equal to all running discussions, listening to the voice of the learner and developing curricula to accommodate different learning styles, was of paramount importance in critical adult education. However, is this really in existence and to what level of acceptance is it? Brookfield highlighted Marcuses disagreement for those who did possess radical opinions and rebellious perspectives and argued that such tolerance is repressive, not liberating. (Brookfield, 2002) Although concurring with the majority of the literature and Marcuses ideas, as an advocate of listening to the voice of the learners, with the freedom to express their viewpoints, are educators allowing this to selfishly improve their own practices? However, I too am dancing to the tune of somebody elses fiddle, by issuing a disciplinary for time keeping, attendance, disruptive behaviours. Could this not subtly be perceived as a contradi ction to my beliefs, reasserting control over public discourse too, and constricting freedom more and more? Unwittingly serving to reinforce an unfair status quo (Brookfield, 2002) concluding that dominant mainstream perspectives still overshadow the minority in practice! Lastly, Brookfield reviewed the writings of Newman and his view on conceptual thought in Criticality. Newman(1994) states that critical thinking is about laying blame and defining enemies, both are necessary precursors to informed social change. (Brookfield, 2002). It can be argued that to liberate learners, accountability and ownership are crucial to develop individual positive visions. Yes, criticality can be both positive and negative. Negative feedback in the classroom can motivate learners! Concurring with Marcuse, in order to truly feel great liberation, we need to get great refusal. We get knocked down, but we get back up again! Onwards, upwards and forwards Change and liberation does not happen without the forwards. However, in general, adults are not always receiving of constructive criticism, previous experiences can cloud judgements! Brookfield states that Marcuse is at odds with those adult educators who emphasize that the road of criticality begins with examining the sp ecific experiences of adult learners. (Brookfield, 2002). On the other hand, it can be argued that this view is crucial in criticality in order to enable the learners to self-correct. References Brookfield, S., 2002. Reassessing Subjectivity, Criticality, and Inclusivity: Marcuses Challenge to Adult Education. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(4), p. 274. Brookfield, S., 2002. Reassessing Subjectivity, Criticality, and Inclusivity: Marcuses Challenge to Adult Education. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(4), pp. 265-280. Brookfield, S., 2002. Reassessing Subjectivity, Criticality, and Inclusivity: Marcuses Challenge to Adult Education. Adult Education Quarterly, 52(4), p. 271. Brookfield, S. D., 2005. Critical Theory for Adult Learning and Teaching. Berkshire: Open University Press. Brookfield, S. D., 2005. Learning Liberation. In: Critical Theory for Adult Learning and Teaching. Berkshire: Open University Press, p. 182. Graham Cagney, A., 2016. Reading No. 10 Marcuse on Liberation, Waterford: s.n. Does Hip Hop Culture Influence Youth Gangs? Does Hip Hop Culture Influence Youth Gangs? Gang violence and the use of violent weapons have been highlighted by the media recently. The government have initiated aims in order to curb and deal with gang violence in the United Kingdom. In order deal with this issue, influencing factors have been acknowledged. This research explores the supposed influence that the hip hop culture has on young males engaged in gangs, and their willingness to use violent weapons. a systematic review of the literature and a qualitative content analysis of four songs lyrics have confirmed that there are themes which are consistent with the attitudes and behaviours that young people express due to the music they listen to. A significant proportion of the literature that surround young people and youth gangs in the UK focuses on possession and use of weapons (e.g. Bullock and Tilley, 2002; Bennett and Holloway, 2004b; Marshall et al, 2005). Research by Lemos (2004) found that some young people were likely to carry weapons through fear of being attacked by other gang members or more worryingly because they associated it with being cool. This was also reflected in Kinsellaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s (2011) report for the government, following the murder of her brother Ben during a knife attack in 2008. Through visiting several projects across the country, Kinsella found two prominent motivational factors that were highlighted in each project. Those were à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾fearà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾fashionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸. Some young people in the projects explained that they carried knives because they feared that others were also weapons, and so felt it necessary to carry knifes as a method of self-protecti on. Chapter 1:  Introduction Youth gangs and the attitudes and behaviours of young males have been a major issue in the United Kingdom. Researches and theories have been conducted in order to evaluate the emergence of youth street gangs. The murders of innocent young people in the last decade have urged the government and academics to conduct reports and research on gang and post code gang feuds. Due to an increase of gang violence the government introduced the Gang Injunction within the Police and Crime Act 2009. The gang Injunction is aimed at preventing young people from engaging in, encouraging and assisting gang related violence (Home Office). Research from the Associations of Chief Police Officers (2007) and Pickle (2009) show that apart from gang members being involved in gangs, they are also engaging in the use and possession of violent weapons. Hip hop artists have been criticised by politicians and the media for influencing young males to engage in violent behaviour. However this idea is not supported by research and can be rejected, because when looking at research from government reports and academics there is no evidence to support the idea that hip hop influencing young males behaviour and attitudes. However research from Kubrin (2005) and Miranda and Claes (2004) who are both Canadian and American, suggest that some of the themes in hip hop are reflected in the behaviour of young males. So therefore there is a relationship between hip hop and young males, but unfortunately this research has not been conducted in the United Kingdom. In the response to the lack of research on the link between hip hop and youth gangs and violence, the aim of this study is to the answer the research question: Youth Gangs: Does the Hip Hop culture Influence Young Males in the UK to Join Street Gangs and the Use of Violent Weapons? In order to answer this research question and to find out whether there is a link between youth gangs and hip hop culture, this research will explore if the use and possession of violent weapons is really glamorised by hip hop, or whether the claims by the government and media are unjustified. The main aims in this research are to: Find out if beliefs, attitudes and behaviours of young gang members can be attributed to the lifestyle portrayed by hip hop artists. Establish where prominent behaviours in the literature, song lyrics and images of hip hop artists can be associated with the influence of violent weapons Apply theory to the attitudes, behaviours and the prominent themes associated with gangs in order to provide a more holistic approach. These aims will be conducted through a discussion of literature from books, journals, government reports, newspapers and media articles. A content analysis will be conducted on hip hop (Grime UK) song that young males may listen to, and a semiotic analysis on images of hip hop artists. Chapter 2 of this research provides a literature review looking into the problems with gang definition, the UK new gang culture, the background of gangs, gang membership, the possession and use of violent weapons and the hip hop culture and the influence of hip hop. Chapter 3 focuses on the methodology and outlines the approach that has been conducted during the research process. The research design and the analyses are included in this chapter, alongside the ethical considerations. Chapter 4 discusses and evaluates the analysis of the hip hop song lyrics, the signs that images from hip hop portray using a semiotic approach and then finally the themes that emerged from the literature and lyrics. These three themes are drug dealing, which is discussed in relation to rational choice theory, strain theory and differential association theory. The second theme is street credibility and this is discussed in relation to social identity theory and masculine theories. The final theme is the Territorial post code wars, this theme is discussed in relation to social capital theory and social learning theory. Chapter 2:  Literature Review This chapter will be exploring the literature surrounding young males, gangs, violence and weapons. As well as the influence the hip hop culture can have on these young males. Different literature such as books, journals, government reports, newspaper articles and research studies will be examined and reviewed in order to view the current state of gang culture and violence in the UK. The following issues will be discussed in order to examine relevant literature on the study. Gang definition, the UK gang culture, gang membership, and the background of gangs in general, the possession and use of violent weapons and finally the influence of hip hop culture on young people. The problem with definition The term Gang has had some issues surrounding its definition, and this is a problem that remains dominant within the UK based literature. The definition of the term has been mainly developed with reference to American gang culture. Some theorists argued that a new definition of the term gang should be given for the new gang culture in the UK. The reason behind some definitions given to describe the gang culture in America was investigated by Ball and Curry (1995) they believed that although it is easy to identify a gang, the real issue arises when attempting to create a definition. After engaging in a lengthy linguistic analysis of various ways to define gang, they proposed that gang definitions would do better to focus on the abstract, formal characteristics of the phenomenon rather than connotative, normative content (Ball Curry, 1995:240). Ball and Curry (1995) also stated that old definitions for the term are acceptable but due to the frequent changes in sociological, political and cultural changes it is important to have a new definition for the term, because the changes may affect the phenomenon of gang culture. Despite the need for a current definition, government and academic organisations believe that a fixed definition is essential in order to develop further research into gangs. For example the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) stated that it was difficult to determine the proportion of crime that contributed to gangs, because the agreed definition of gangs on the data base was non-existent (ACPO, 2007:14). The Metropolitan Police Service (2008) also identified several other factors that differentiate a gang from relatively small, unorganised and transient peer groups. These factors include names, an organisable structure, and the use of violence and delinquent behaviour to promote group identity and to acquire social capital (Metropolitan Police Service, 2007: 21) The UK New Gang Culture The media, government and professional academics have all raised their concerns about the growing perception of gang culture in the UK. The media frequently report criminal activity, and in response some academics have argued that the media sensationalises the gang problem in the UK (Alexander, 2008:4). Other academics such as Bullock and Tiley (2002) have also suggested that the need to understand and tackle the gang violence is more important instead of sectionalising gang violence. Following the medias numerous reports regarding the increase in high profile gang related crimes since 2007, Heale (2008) stated that youth gangs have been frequently highlighted in the media. The fatal shooting of an innocent five year old girl in Stockwell in 2012, Is another incident that caught the medias attention. Thusha Kamaleswaran was left permanently paralysed after a gang related shooting occurred at her aunts shop (Telegraph, 2012). The media suggested that the shooting was linked to youth g ang violence; the metropolitan police gave a statement stating, It is believed two black youths ran into the shop before shots were fired. Peter Robbins who is the counsellor from Lambeth council also gave a statement, there is a fairly well known problem with gangs and guns in Lambeth (Daily Mail, 2012). Gangs are not only running into shops and causing injury to innocent individuals, they are also engaging in the American style drive by shootings. For example, the Telegraph (2011) reported a drive by shooting in west London which injured three teenage girls and left one girl in critical condition. These shootings also attracted the media and public attention and the they believed that the American style drive by shootings performed by UK gangs where indeed becoming a lot more like the American gangs. Academics have criticised the media despite there being evidence of growing youth violence taking place in the UK, academics believe that the media solely focuses on the dramatic consequences of gang violence, instead of how it can be prevented and tackled (Fitch, 2009: 2). Deuchar (2008) suggested that the majority of gang members tend to predominantly be from black or ethnic minority groups, despite this suggestion Bennett and Holloway (2004a: 319) found that the majority of gang members were white, followed by Caribbean and Bangladeshi. Due to this inconsistency in literature surrounding the race and ethnic minority of gang members, it is clear that the race and ethnicity of gang members is not an important factor in researching gangs. So therefore this study will not focus on race and ethnicity. Instead this study will focus on why young people join gangs and the characteristics of gang members. Background Studies and research where conducted in order to give an insight into the increase of gang membership. Bennett and Holloway (2004a: 305) found evidence from governments reports, newspapers, local agencies and national bodies that suggested gangs in the UK and the number of gang members where increasing. Bennett and Holloway (2004a) argued that with the obvious increase in violent weapons and the possessions and the use of guns, the British gangs where not that different to the American stereotype that the UK often rejected. Research into gangs in America could not be generalised to the rising youth gang culture in Britain, despite the early research into gangs and youth groups. Subculture theorists in America have largely focused on the study of youth groups and gangs for almost over a century. Research into gangs in America mainly focused on the Chicago city, which is a research that has provided what is known as the first study into the gang culture phenomena. After the research in Chicago gang culture, subculture theorist Merton began his research into delinquent groups, with the help of Cohen (1955) and Cloward and Ohlin (1961). Mertons (1938) research on the Social structure and Anomie thesis anticipated that the American Dream was at the forefront of every individuals aspirations in life. But not every individual would be able to acquire this. For example education was only accessible to some people and this led to anomie. Also deviant behaviours such as violence and petty crimes amongst young working class males who were most affect were caused by the feeling of strain. Cohen (1955: 66) extended the concept of social structure and anomie by explaining that in order to explain non instrumental vandalism and violence was due to status frustration. He stated that the individuals who felt frustrated would, gravitate towards one another to establish new norms and new criteria of status, and this would then form a delinquent subculture. This statement was furt her extended by Cloward and Ohlin (1961:1), they believed that every individual had access to legitimate and illegitimate opportunities and suggested three types of subculture. The retreatist subculture which fails to find legitimate or illegitimate means in order to succeed, so therefore the individual turns to alcohol or drug abuse while the conflict subculture is when individuals use manipulation of violence as a way of winning status. The criminal subculture describes a group of individuals who rely on theft and extortion as a means of getting income. The subculture that is most relevant to this research on the young males and the influence of hip hop is the Conflict subculture. Downes (1966) systematic review found no evidence that Cloward and Ohlin (1961) retreats, conflict and criminal subcultures existed in the UK because the young males lacked structured cohesion that the American gangs boasted about. Cohen (1955) notion of status frustration was criticised by Downes who believed that by Cohen conducting his research in only one borough meant that his findings may not be generalised to the rest of the UK. Despite this Downes concluded that the research into gang delinquency in the UK is a reflection of its absence (Downes, 1966:116). In addition to this Campbell et al (1989) believed that the gang notion belonged to America, whilst the subculture notion belonged to the UK. As a result of this Campbell et al (1982) felt that a separate definition and research for youth gangs in the UK would need to be developed in order to provide a better framework for future research into gangs Campbell et al, 1989: 276) Gang Membership It is believed that young people especially males are known to join gang memberships for different psychological or social reasons (Bennett and Holloway, 2004a: 307). Some of the psychological reasons for young people joining gangs are believed to be because they have a desire for money, to gain status and respect from other gang members and the feeling of being protected and having a connection within the gang membership. Psychological reasons for young people joining gangs usually develop from lack of effective support from their parents, family, teachers and the police (Harris et al, 2001: 9). Sociological reasons have been heavily focused on in terms of explaining gang membership. Research by the NASUWT Teachers union (2008) found that if there is an absence or lack of positive role models in a young individuals life, then in order to build a social identity they will look towards accessible role models. Also the study found that young people from broken families where a father f igure was not present are more likely to look up to individuals in gangs or family members involved in gang memberships (NASUWT Teachers union, 2008: 11). Wood and Alleyne (2009) found evidence that gang membership gives young people a chance to acquire powerful status amongst their friends, opportunity for excitement especially if they live a boring life. Protection from other gang members and most importantly it offers social support that is lacking in young peoples lives from their family. Whereas Marshall et al (2005) suggests that the reason for young people engaging in gang membership is due to their exclusion and alienation from mainstream society, particularly education and employment. Whilst most theorists offer an explanation as to why young people join gangs, they have failed to outline the specific features and characteristics of gang members. Evidence from Bennett and Holloway (2004a) suggests that gang members tend to me male, involved in drug taking and supplying, mor e likely to carry weapons and are criminally active. Possession and the violent use of weapons There are various literatures that focus on youth gangs and the use of violent weapons amongst young people in the UK. Lemos (2004) report on Fear and Fashion: The use of knives and other weapons by young people believed that most young people were more likely to carry violent weapons due to the fear of being attacked by other young individuals or just because they believed that carrying a violent weapon made them look cool. The home office affairs select committee published a knife crime report which investigated the levels and causes of knife crime and the attitudes of the offenders. Knife crime has been and still is a persistent and worrying concern that has a huge impact on young people in the UK. During June 2012 there were approximately 29,513 recorded offences involving knives and other sharp instruments, accounting for 7% of selected offences (Berman: Knife Crime Statistics, 2012). In the UK more than 70 teenagers were violently killed by the use of violent weapons. Majority of these deaths were gang related violences. In 2008 gang and knife crime were regularly featured in the media headlines, these crimes were mapped out in various locations around the UK, but London suffered the highest number of crime amongst young people. Dr Bob Golding, who is a criminal justice lecturer at the university of Portsmouth, stated that knife crime is simply a symptom; you have associated with this a development of gang culture (Golding, BBC News: 2008). The possession and the use of violent weapons were also reflected in Brooke Kinsellas (2011) Tackling Knife Crime Together report. Kinsella report was conducted following the death of her brother in a knife attack in 2008. The report also gave the public an insight into the seriousness of violent weapon crimes. Kinsella found that motivational factors influence young people into carrying violent weapons, these two factors were fear and fashion. In the report it was also discovered that youths reasons for carrying weapons was due to the fear of being attacked by other individuals, so therefore they felt the need to protect themselves. The reason that was more worrying was the need to be in possession of violent weapons because they believed it was fashionable or a cool thing to do (Kinsella, 2011: 2). Recently the media reported two incidents that allegedly occurred with five hours. The first incident was the shooting of a 19 year old male in Clapton, east London and the stabbing of a 16 year old male in Wandsworth, south west London. Although the police believe that these crimes where not linked to gangs, it just shows the frequent use of violent weapons within the community. (BBC, 2013) Although it is difficult to determine the link between violent weapon crimes and gangs, recent research into gangs has noted the relationship between firearms and gangs (Squires et al, 2008). A research report was carried out by Bullock and Tilley (2002), they found that 60% of firearm crimes can be linked to gangs meanwhile; the Home Office 2009/2010 reported 5% increase of injuries as a result of firearms. In order for the government to tackle the possession and use of violent weapons, they need to establish the main reasons why young people engage in violent weapons. As this could enable them or it could be a starting point for them to limit gang violence. The Hip Hop Culture and the Influence of Hip Hop Hip hop today is known as a cultural reform and social reconstruction. Hip hop first developed in the drug infested gang streets of the Bronx in New York City. Apart from the glamorous and provocative nature of hip hop, it is mainly associated with and for freedom, peace, equality and social harmony. Alongside creating a successful industry hip hop also gave ethnic minorities in America a chance to voice their opinions internationally, a civil rights movement that is still relevant today. Price (2006:1) defines hip hop as a liberation movement in the form of a diverse culture, it was a next generation civil (human) rights movement sparked by ostracized, marginalized and oppressed inner- city youths. Hip hop culture has grown to represent urban, rural, suburban and global communities of all ages, genders, religions and races. One main factor that is mainly held responsible for the increase in gang violence is the hip hop culture. It is believed that the hip hop has a negative influence on young people. David Blunkett reportedly made a statement about gang violence, stating idiots like so solid crew are glorifying gun culture and violence. This statement was made a year after one of the members from So Solid Crew Ashley Walters was sentenced to 18 months for the possession of a firearm (Telegraph, Sally Pook: 2003). David Cameroon also voiced his opinions on violent music. In the British society (2006) he asked BBC radio station 1, do you realise some of the stuff you play on Saturday nights encourages people to carry guns and knives? Despite the perception that the hip hop culture glamorises gang and violence, there is very little research on this concept. United Kingdom based research has dismissed the concept that hip hop influences young males into gangs and violent weapon. Hallsworth and Silverstone (2009: 362) suggested that style and music do not define the relationships between the individuals and the violence that they do, or the weapon they carry. There is no empirical support for the statement; however they do believe that those who carry weapons tend to imitate the American hip hop style by carrying guns. Well-known hip hop artists spoke about the comparison between hip hop and the trend of violence amongst young people in the communities. 50 Cent who has recently turned to acting and has become an entrepreneur refuted claims of there being a connection between hip hop and gun violence. He stated in his interview that his music was more a reflection of his experiences in life, rather than a glorificati on of assault weapons (CBS News, 2013). Hip hop and gangs have always been linked in some form. It is believed that the hip hop culture has created and influenced gang violence over the decades. Literature in the UK regarding the effect of hip hop music on young males and gangs on focuses on deviant behaviour in adolescence, whereas literature in the USA have a wider range of research and literature. Miranda and Claes (2009) researched the possible link between preference of rap music and deviant behaviours such as, drug use, violence and street gang involvement amongst French Canadian adolescents. Miranda and Claes found that despite trying to control the adolescent deviancy, a significant link can still be found between rap music and deviant behaviour. However despite their finding they did not find a link between hip hop and street gang involvement. This shows that there needs to be future research in order to come to a conclusion as to whether or not there is an association between hip hop and gang violence (Miranda a nd Claes, 2009). The issue of hip hop music lyrics and how they may have an effect on young people has been approached by Kubrins (2005) study. Kubrin conducted a content analysis of rap songs in America and also addressed the use of violent weapons suggesting that the gun becomes a symbol of power and a remedy for disputes (Kubrin, 2005:363). Research from Miranda, Claes and Kubrin, found that young people joined street gangs in order to acquire status and a social identity, which is seen and stated in the music they listen to. Because the majority of these studies are based on American and Canadian individuals, it is possible that the findings cannot be generalised to gangs in the UK. Chapter 3:  Methodology This section will explain the methodological approach that this research has adopted in order to establish if the hip hop culture has an influence on youth gangs and the use of violent weapons in the UK. The method which was chosen for the purpose of this paper was desk research, sometimes known as secondary data or secondary research (Bryman, 2008). This research involves gathering data that already exists from internal sources, publications of governmental and non-governmental institutions, free access data from the internet, in articles, newspapers and other relevant sources (Bryman, 2008:à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..). A systematic review of literature, a qualitative content analysis on four hip hop song lyrics, and a semiotic analysis on a hip hop image will be conducted in order to establish if a relationship between hip hop culture, youth gang and the use of violent weapons exists. At first a qualitative research was initially considered in order to gather data and in order to answer the research question. The majority of research in to gangs and the use of violent weapons are normally conducted through qualitative surveys and interviews with current or previous gang members and offenders. These types of primary research would be dangerous and difficult to replicate as an undergraduate student. Research Design The research design of this study discusses the literature in the form of a systematic review. Government reports, journal articles and published texts on gangs and the use of violent weapons from the last decade have all been reviewed. Secondary data has been used to conduct this study. The secondary data has been used with caution and all literature used are from trustworthy sources. Literature based research has its strengths, and they mainly fall on the fact that the research is able to analyse data that is already available because the time consuming research has already been conducted by academics. There will be no contact with current or previous offenders who have been involved in gangs or crimes involving violent weapons, so the potential harm and risk involved in this research is minimised. However as explained by Bryman, (2008) not conducting a primary research means that there will be no control over the variables and so it is acknowledged that the grounds may be differen t to the present study. therefore this research has been conducted carefully in order not to manipulate the literature to support the hypothesis of the present study By conducting a content analysis of hip hop song lyrics, this study will be able to establish whether the genre of music can be held responsible for the behaviour of youth gang members or whether claims by the media are false. Out of the four songs that have been analysed, two demonstrate how the hip hop culture can influence young males, particularly in regards to joining gangs and the use of violent weapons. The two other songs acknowledge social exclusion as a reason for delinquency. The Song lyrics where obtained from lyric databases such as, Metro lyrics, sweet lyrics, urban lyrics and AZ lyrics. Even though the validity and reliability of these lyrics are questionable, all the songs used are from official version on YouTube, a reliable video broadcasting website. Due to the fact that majority of the songs analysed are likely to contain words and languages that are likely to be difficult to understand, a slang website called Urban Dictionary was used as a means to translate any difficult words. Analysis Key themes have been highlighted in the literature articles through a process of thematic analysis during a systematic review. These themes include repetition, differences and similarities. The following analytical chapters will be discussing these themes in relation to theories in order to give a better understanding as to why young males may seek these identities. Firstly the song lyrics will be discussed in relation to the themes that have been highlighted through the thematic analysis. This will be done using a similar approach conducted by Kubrin (2005) study on Gangstas, Thugs, and Hustlas. Song lyrics will be discussed and the images will be discussed using a semiotic approach in order to evaluate whether or not the music that is marketed to youths encourages the use of violent weapons. This will then be followed by a discussion of the themes in relation to the literature. Theory will be included in order to provide a more holistic understanding as to why young people join youth gangs, their behaviour and attitudes. In order to identify the themes within the literature a critical discussion of the findings will provide a foundation for recommendation on future research on this topic. By using these analytical methods a detailed account of the influence the hip hop culture has on young males can be generated from the literature. Ethical Considerations Due to this research being a secondary research, it does involve as many ethical issues as a primary research. For example no participants will be interviewed, so there is no need for informed consents and there are no issues regarding deception and invasion of privacy. Also there is no need to consider data protection or storage because the research studies reports are available and have been published for public viewing. The following ethical considerations from the British Society of Criminology (BSC) Code of Ethics have been considered and relate to this research. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, there will be no contact with previous or current gang members so the emotional and physical well-being of the researcher will be maintained (BSC 3: iii). As the BSC states, researchers should promote equal opportunity in all aspects of their professional work and actively seek to avoid discriminatory behaviour (BSC, 3: iv).Whilst doing this research every effort has been m ade not to address young male gang members in terms of age, and racial or ethnic group sensitively and to use non-biased language. Also this research has made every effort not to disrespect the views and beliefs of young gang members, as one of the aims for this dissertation is to focus on developing a theoretical and holistic understanding of the behaviour of gang members. Also the views and beliefs of the gang members have not been disrespected whilst conducting a systematic review of the literature and analysing the literature through the themes that developed in the content analysis, alongside the arguments for and against hip hop culture influencing violence, the use and possession of violent weapons. Research studies by academics include young gang members who have consented to taking part in a published research study, so it is believed that any data from interviews conducted in previous reports are acceptable to use for secondary data. This therefore means that the ethical c ode (4: iii) will not be breached. However, if an entire data set was used for the present research, a Research Ethics Committee would have been required to conduct an expedited review (Economic and Social Research Council). Because this is a secondary research one of the major limitations is that some sources, especially internet sources may not be reliable, so a serious amount of importance was placed when using reliable data and sources from the internet as well as sources where the reliability of the internet information was uncertain. In addition to this No favoured judgement has been made towards certain research findings and a conscious effort has been made by the researcher not to manipulate or misinterpret the findings to suit the research question. By doing so a one sided argumen

Qualitative aspect of drug action

Qualitative aspect of drug action Qualitative aspect of drug action Schild plot Schild plot: Schild plot is defined as pharmacological method of receptor classification. By using schild plot dose-effect curve for an agonist is determined in the presence of various concentrations of a competitive antagonist for its receptor in the presence of agonist i.e. equilibrium dissociation constant is calculated. The experiment is carried out for series of dose ratios for a given effect. For example the ratio of the dose of agonist (A) to produce a specific effect (e.g.,half maximal effect) in the presence of the antagonist (B) to the dose required in the absence of the antagonist (A) is calculated. This is determined for several doses of antagonist and then log ((A/A) -1) versus the negative log B is plotted. If the regression of log ((A/A) -1) on -log B is linear with a slope of -1, then this indicates that the antagonism is competitive and by definition the agonist and antagonist act at the same recognition sites. If the slope of the regression is not -1, then by defini tion the antagonist is not competitive or some other condition is in effect. This might include multiple binding sites or pharmacokinetic interactions. Agonist: Agonist is a drug which has both affinity and efficacy. Antagonist: Antagonist is a drug which has affinity and zero efficacy. Affinity:Affinity is a property of a drug; it measures how tight a drug binds to a receptor. To bind to a receptor a functional group of the drug should bind to the complementary receptor. The binding capacity of the drug defines the action of the drug. Efficacy: Efficacy of a drug can be defined as ability of drug which activates the receptor to produce desired effect after binding. Affinity and efficacy are explained in the equation as: K+1 ÃŽ ± A + R AR* Response K-1 ÃŽ ² K+1 B + R BR No Response K-1 Where A is agonist, B is antagonist, K+1 is association rate constant for binding, K-1is dissociation rate constant for binding ÃŽ ±- Association rate constant for activation ÃŽ ²- Dissociation rate constant for activation By using law of mass action affinity is explained as B + R BR Drug free receptor drug-receptor complex At equilibrium KB = [R] [B] KB = Equilibrium dissociation constant [BR] Hill-Langmuir equation: this equation explains drug occupancy [RT] = [R] + [BR] If [RT] = Total number of receptors then by substituting this in law of mass action equation [RB] = [B] [RT] KB + [B] By this equation it is determined that drug occupancy (affinity) depends on drug concentration and equilibrium dissociation constant. Equilibrium dissosciation constant: EQUILIBRIUM DISSOCIATION CONSTANT (Kd) : It is the characteristic property of the drug and the receptors. It is defined as the concentration of the drug required to occupy 50 % of the receptors. The higher the affinity of the drug for the receptors lower is the Kd value. Mathematically Kd is k2/k1 where k2 is the rate of dissociation of the drug from the receptor and k1 is the rate of association of the drug for the receptor. Receptor (R) and Drug (D) interact in a reversible manner to form a drug-receptor (RD) complex. Where R = Receptor D = Drug (L for ligand is sometimes used in these equations) k1 = the association rate constant and has the units of M-1min-1 k2 = the dissociation rate constant and has the units of min-1. k2 is sometimes written as k-1. If an agonist binds to the receptor, then the interaction of the agonist (D) and the receptor (R) results in a conformational change in the receptor leading to a response. If an antagonist binds to the receptor, then the interaction of antagonist (D) and receptor (R) does not result in the appropriate conformation change in the receptor and a response does not occur. For drugs that follow the law of simple mass action the rate of formation of the complex can be defined by the following equation d[RD]/dt refers to the change in the concentration of [RD] with time (t). Note: the square brackets refer to concentration. This equation indicates that the rate at which the drug receptor complex (RD) is formed is proportional to the concentration of both free receptor (R) and free drug (D). The proportionality constant is k1. The rate of dissociation can be defined by the following equation -d[RD]/dt is the decrease in drug-receptor complex with time This equation indicates that the rate at which the drug-receptor complex (RD) dissociates back to free drug and free receptor is proportional to the concentration of the drug receptor complex. The proportionality constant is k2. When the drug and the receptor are initially mixed together, the amount of drug-receptor complex formed will exceed the dissociation of the drug-receptor complex. If the reaction is allowed to go for a long enough, the amount of drug-receptor complex formed per unit time will be equal to the number of dissociations of drug-receptor complex per unit of time, and the system will be at equilibrium. That is equilibrium has occurred. Equilibrium can be defined as or k1[R][D] = k2[RD] This equation can be rearranged to give Kd is the dissociation equilibrium constant. Kd has units of concentration as shown in the following equation. Simple competitive antagonism: simple competitive antagonism is the most important type of the antagonism. In this type of antagonism the antagonist will compete with available agonist for same receptor site. Sufficient antagonist will displace agonist resulting in lower frequency of receptor activation. Presence of antagonist shifts agonist log dose response curve to right. A schild plot for a competitive antagonist will have a slope equal to 1 and the X-intercept and Y-intercept will each equal thedissociation constantof the antagonist. This can be explained in equation as: Occupancy for agonist [RA] = [A] OR [A]/ KA [RT] KA+ [A] [A]/ KA +1 In presence of competitive antagonist (B) [RA] = [A]/ KA [RT] [A]/ KA + [B]/ KB + 1 Occupancy reduced according to [B] and KB To obtain same occupancy, must increase [A] to [A`] r = [A] / [A] = [B] / [B] Schild equation: r = [B] / KB +1 Where r depends on [B] and KB Applying log on both sides log (r-1) = log[B] log KB Aim: The main aim of the experiment is to measure the equilibrium dissociation constant (KB) for atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors and to determine the drug receptor interactions. Objectives The main objectives of the experiment are as follows Ø To measure the equilibrium dissociation constant for atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors Ø To demonstrate the reversible competitive antagonism of atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors Ø To determine the equilibrium dissociation constant (KB) for atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors by using schild plot. MethodIsolation and mounting of Guinea-pig ileum in organ bath Guinea-pig was first sacrificed and then the ileum was collected and transferred into physiological salt solution maintained at 370C. The food particles present in the ileum was expelled out through running Krebs solution through the lumen. Then tissue was tied with a thread at both the ends where one was tied to the mounting hook and the other was attached to the transducer. 1) Preparation of serial dilutions of drug The drugs used in the experiment were acetylcholine (Ach) and atropine. To determine the simple competitive antagonism of atropine at Ach muscuranic receptors serial dilutions of Ach were carried out. Ach was given as 110-2M and from the above concentration of the drug the following concentrations were prepared to the organ bath concentration such as 110-6M, 310-6M, 110-7M, 310-7M, 110-8M, 310-8M, 110-9M and 310-9M Ach. Then atropine was diluted to 110-8M (organ bath) from the given 110-2M concentration. 2) Determination of Organ bath concentration The volume of physiological salt solution (pss) was 20 ml, and each time the volume of drug introduced into organ bath was 20Â µl.Therefore if 20Â µl of 110-2M drug was introduced into the organ bath then it gives 110-5M organ bath concentration. Mathematical calculation of organ bath concentration: In organ bath we have 20ml of pss which is equal to 20103 Â µl of pss, if 20 Â µl of 110-2 M Ach was introduced then the organ bath concentration 20Â µl→XM 20ml→10-2M = 20 Â µl x 10-2 M 20x 103 Â µl = 110-5M (organ bath concentration). The isolated guinea- pig ileum was mounted onto the organ bath and set up for recording isometric tension of the tissue using chart software in a Mac book. Step-1 Calibration of the experimental apparatus: The chart 5 software was calibrated and the sampling rate was adjusted to 10 samples per second with a maximum input voltage to 10 mV. The baseline was set to zero and then trace was started from the baseline zero then the force transducer was calibrated by placing 1 gram weight and after the calibration the trace produced was stopped for the moment to convert the units of tension into grams by selecting the trace produced previously. Step-2 Sensitisation of preparation: To check the viability of the tissue a response of suitable height was obtained by adding a little high concentration of the drug. Here in the experiment an appreciable recording was noted at 110-7M Ach. Step-3 The time cycle followed to construct a concentration- response curve was 0 seconds to add the drug concentrations 30 seconds to empty the organ bath and refill with fresh physiological salt solution 180 seconds next drug concentration was added to the organ bath. Concentration Response Curve: By making use of the above drug concentrations a concentration response curve was constructed according to the provided time cycle. 1) 20 Â µl of 110-9M Ach was added into the organ bath at zero seconds at is allowed to stand for 30 seconds, then after 30 seconds the organ bath was emptied and refilled with pss. Pss was allowed to stand for 180 seconds. During the wash period if the peak does not return to the base then it was washed twice or thrice to make sure that all the drug dissociates from the receptors before the next addition of the other drug concentration. Each concentration was repeated twice or thrice until the two consecutive responses were reported with the same peak height. 2) By following the procedure and time cycle, the concentration response curve was constructed with different concentrations of acetyl choline such as 110-9M,310-9M, 110-8M, 310-8M, 110-7M, 310-7M, 110-6M and 310-6M Ach (organ bath concentration). Step-4 Equilibration of Acetylcholine receptors with acetylcholine After step-2 the preparation was washed several times until the peak returned to the base line. Then atropine (110-8M organ bath concentration) was added to the preparation and then set aside for 40 minutes to allow atropine to equilibrate with acetylcholine muscuranic receptors. Step-5 Concentration response curve in the presence of atropine The concentration response curve with acetylcholine was repeated again in the presence of atropine by following the time cycle and procedure, which was same as same step 2.Therefore in step 3 with each addition of acetylcholine concentration atropine was added simultaneously. Step-6 Analysis: i) The graph pad prism in the Mac book was used to plot concentration response curves in the absence and presence of atropine. Log concentration (acetylcholine) Vs response in grams ii) From the above plot EC 50 values of acetylcholine in the presence and absence of atropine were obtained. Then the distance between the two curves control and response for the atropine presence was denoted by ‘r, where ‘r was called as shift. iii) The shift was calculated mathematically as r= EC 50 of response in the presence of atropine EC 50 of Ach in the absence of atropine iv) From the value of the shift, schild plot was plotted as log concentration of atropine presence against log(r-1). v) From the schild plot the dissociation constant KB for atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors was determined. Results: As explained above in the procedure serial dilutions of acetylcholine was added to the organ bath, where Ach has produced concentration dependent contractions of the guinea pig ileum as shown in the fig 1. As shown in 1 the serial dilutions of acetylcholine are added into the organ bath from 110-7M to 310-6M Ach. Here in the trace it was clearly shown that contractions produced by the acetylcholine have been increased with respect to the concentrations. In step-2 the preparation was washed and added with 110-8M atropine and set aside for 40 minutes to equilibrate the acetylcholine receptors. In the trace it is clearly shown that, the contractions produced by serial dilutions of Ach from 110-8M to 310-4M in the presence of 110-8M atropine. When Trace 1 and Trace 2 are compared it is evident that the contractions produced by Ach alone (trace 1) were greater than the contractions produced Ach in the presence of atropine (trace 2) which proves the simple competitive antagonism by atropine at muscuranic receptors. A graph is plotted to the log concentration response curve produced by Ach alone against Ach in the presence of atropine. (graph is attatched to the report) From the graph it is known that with the increase in the concentration of Ach, response have been increased when compared to Ach in the presence of atropine and also there is a shift towards right which shows the simple competitive antagonism produced by atropine. From the results produced by Ach alone against Ach in the presence of atropine the fractional difference which is called as shift can be obtained as follows Mathematical Calculation shift ‘r = EC50 of response after atropine (or) in the presence of atropine EC50 of control (or) Ach in the absence of atropine = 2.5110-6 = 8.36 3.0 x10-7 r-1 =8.36 -1=7.36 log(r-1)=log (7.36) =0.86 Partial dissociation constant (PKB) or PA2 is measured to confirm the simple competitive antagonism, where pKB values play an important role in classifying receptors. Therefore PKB =log(r-1) -log [atropine] =0.86 -log (110-8) =0.86 (-8) =0.86+ 8 =8.86 From the above results log EC50 values for control (Ach alone) and Ach in the presence of atropine were given as 3.0e-007 and 2.51e-006 respectively. This shows the molar concentration of Ach which produces 50% of the maximal possible response is higher than the molar concentration response produced by Ach in the presence of atropine. If the antagonist is competitive, the dose ratio equals one plus the ratio of the concentration of antagonist divided by its Kd for the receptor. (The dissociation constant of the antagonist is sometimes called Kb and sometimes called Kd) MathType Equation A simple rearrangement gives: MathType Equation Here we have plotted a graph with log (antagonist) on the X-axis and log (dose ratio -1) on the Y-axis. If the antagonist has shown simple competitive antagonism then the slope should be 1.0, X-intercept and Y-intercept values should be both equal the Kd of the antagonist obtained. If the agonist and antagonist are competitive, the Schild plot will have a slope of 1.0 and the X intercept will equal the logarithm of the Kd of the antagonist. If the X-axis of a Schild plot is plotted as log(molar), then minus one times the intercept is called the pA2 (p for logarithm, like pH; A for antagonist; 2 for the dose ratio when the concentration of antagonist equals the pA2). The pA2 (derived from functional experiments) will equal the Kd from binding experiments if antagonist and agonist compete for binding to a single class of receptor sites. From 5 and 6 it is evident that no concentrations of atropine have showed competitive antagonism perfectly. Therefore from the above results it is known that the concentrations of atropine has not shown simple competitive antagonism fairly. Discussion: Reversible competitive antagonism: The binding of drug to a receptor is fully reversible which produces a parallel shift of the dose response curve to the right in the presence of an antagonist. The mechanism of action of acetylcholine at muscuranic receptors: In various gastrointestinal smooth muscles, acetylcholine and its derivatives produce contractions by activating muscuranic receptors. It is generally assumed that the M3 muscuranic receptor plays a key role in mediating this activity. The M3 receptor is coupled preferentially to Gq-type G proteins, resulting in the activation of phospholipase C (PLC) and the formation of ionositiol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG) which are likely to participate in muscuranic receptor-mediated smooth muscle contractions. IP3 causes Ca2+ release from intracellular store and can also mobilize Ca2+ secondarily through Ca2+-sensitive or store-dependent mechanisms. DAG, via activation of protein kinase C, phosphorylates various proteins and can directly activate non selective cationic channels. From the above results the value of shift obtained was 0.378 which denotes the simple competitive antagonism produced by the concentration of atropine used (110-8 M).From the value of shift the pKB value was calculated as 8.4.If atropine has shown simple competitive antagonism then the value of pKB should be equal to 1-X intercept. Therefore pKB=1-X intercept =1-(-8.86) =9.86 We got value of pKB as 8.86.Therefore pKB is not equal to 1-X intercept. Therefore the concentration of atropine (110-8M organ bath concentration) used by our group has not shown simple competitive antagonism effectively. The literature value of pKB is given as approximately 9 and we have obtained the value of pKB as 8.86 which does not fit with literature value. Therefore from the above observations and results i can conclude that a little more high concentration of atropine may serve to produce complete simple competitive antagonism by atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors.

The Theme of Escape in The Glass Menagerie Essay examples -- essays re

The Theme of Escape in The Glass Menagerie In The Glass Menagerie, Tennessee Williams uses the theme of escape to help drive the play forward. None of the characters are capable of living in the real world. Laura, Amanda, Tom and Jim use various methods to escape the brutalities of life. Laura retreats into a world of glass animals and old records. Amanda is obsessed with living in her past. Tom escapes into his world of poetry writing and movies. Jim also reverts to his past and remembers the days when he was a high school hero. Mr. Wingfield is referred to often throughout the play. He is the ultimate symbol of escape. This is because he has managed to remove himself from the desperate situation that the rest of the family is still living in. The fire escape helps develop the theme of the story. This entrance into the apartment provides a different purpose for each of the characters. The fire escape allows Tom the opportunity to escape the apartment and get away from his nagging mother. Amanda sees the fire escape as an opportunity for gentleman callers to enter their lives. Laura's view is different from her mother and her brother. Her escape seems to be hiding inside the apartment, not out. Laura finds herself escaping at every turn. She induces sickness in her typing class and even as a gentleman caller waits in the living room. Another escape for Laura is her glass menagerie. Her collection of glass represents her own private world set apart from reality, a place wh...

The Role of Estrogen in Sexual Differentiation :: Biology Essays Research Papers

The Role of Estrogen in Sexual Differentiation Most, if not all, species with two sexes exhibit sexually dimorphic behavior and physical characteristics. These dimorphisms can be attributed to differences in the brain, such as size or function of structure, and these brain structures can be affected by the hormones circulated throughout the organism. It has been held that the sexual dimorphisms rely only on the presence or absence of androgen, namely, testosterone, during the critical period of development for an organism; however, new research suggests that the presence of estrogen, specifically estradiol, has an active role in sexual differentiation. Several sexual dimorphic structures in the brain have been observed in laboratory experiments. The corpus callosum in male rats is much larger than that in female rats, and this size difference is uncorrelated with total brain weight. These findings led many to investigate the relationship between human male and female corpus callosa. A paper published by de Lacoste-Utamsing and Holloway stated that the splenium of the callosum is larger in women than in men, but their finding has since been challenged by several reports stating that there exists no sexual dimorphism. Analysis done from 1982-1994 reveals a small difference of corpus callosum size in favor of males, but it is hypothesized that age, handedness, overall brain size and weight, and incorrect statistics were not taken into account. (3) There has also been controversy in the research involving the brain region INAH-3 in humans. The heterosexual male INAH-3 is larger than that of heterosexual females; the INAH-3 in homosexual males is on the average smaller than that of heterosexual males and approximately the same size of heterosexual females. The general population has attempted to use this fact as an explanation of the biological basis of homosexuality, though the differences in structure may not be causally related to the sexual orientation of the man. Because we can only observe behaviors when doing experiments with lab animals, the data cannot firmly establish a basis for sexual orientation. The traditional view on sexual differentiation is that organizational effects from hormones which occur during neonatal development are the master plan for the organisms sex and corresponding behaviors and characteristics. Exposure to androgen, namely, testosterone, would result in a male organism, while exposure to neither androgen nor estrogen would result in the default sex: female. Characteristics resulting from organizational effects include formation of genitalia and traits such as aggression. The Role of Estrogen in Sexual Differentiation :: Biology Essays Research Papers The Role of Estrogen in Sexual Differentiation Most, if not all, species with two sexes exhibit sexually dimorphic behavior and physical characteristics. These dimorphisms can be attributed to differences in the brain, such as size or function of structure, and these brain structures can be affected by the hormones circulated throughout the organism. It has been held that the sexual dimorphisms rely only on the presence or absence of androgen, namely, testosterone, during the critical period of development for an organism; however, new research suggests that the presence of estrogen, specifically estradiol, has an active role in sexual differentiation. Several sexual dimorphic structures in the brain have been observed in laboratory experiments. The corpus callosum in male rats is much larger than that in female rats, and this size difference is uncorrelated with total brain weight. These findings led many to investigate the relationship between human male and female corpus callosa. A paper published by de Lacoste-Utamsing and Holloway stated that the splenium of the callosum is larger in women than in men, but their finding has since been challenged by several reports stating that there exists no sexual dimorphism. Analysis done from 1982-1994 reveals a small difference of corpus callosum size in favor of males, but it is hypothesized that age, handedness, overall brain size and weight, and incorrect statistics were not taken into account. (3) There has also been controversy in the research involving the brain region INAH-3 in humans. The heterosexual male INAH-3 is larger than that of heterosexual females; the INAH-3 in homosexual males is on the average smaller than that of heterosexual males and approximately the same size of heterosexual females. The general population has attempted to use this fact as an explanation of the biological basis of homosexuality, though the differences in structure may not be causally related to the sexual orientation of the man. Because we can only observe behaviors when doing experiments with lab animals, the data cannot firmly establish a basis for sexual orientation. The traditional view on sexual differentiation is that organizational effects from hormones which occur during neonatal development are the master plan for the organisms sex and corresponding behaviors and characteristics. Exposure to androgen, namely, testosterone, would result in a male organism, while exposure to neither androgen nor estrogen would result in the default sex: female. Characteristics resulting from organizational effects include formation of genitalia and traits such as aggression.

Generation Y Essay -- Youth Papers

Generation Y "Your generation is nothing but a bunch of computer addicted slackers. You kids don't care about anything." These phrases and others can be overheard coming from the mouths of baby boomers, those born between 1946 and 1964, and other Generation Y predecessors. What happened? For years now, Generation Y, those born between 1977 and now, have been viewed negatively (Alch 1). Though the origins of the "slacker" title are uncertain, the term has certainly stuck. It could be considered a fitting title. After all, Generation Y performs poorly in school, has no motivation to work, and doesn't get involved with the issues, right? Well no, not exactly. Generation Y is largely misunderstood. They're actually extremely concerned with what goes on around them and are working harder than ever. These people are well on their way to reshaping society as we know it. Generation Y is a confident generation, with high self-esteem. They are opinionated and value their privacy (Article 15 1). They have a strong work ethic and have grown up understanding the electronic economy. Unlike their predecessors, Generation Y has demonstrated a sense of responsibility by having part time jobs while in high school and college. Often, they even help pay for their schooling (Alch 1). Clearly, it is worth taking a second glance before prematurely judging this generation. Sure, young Americans are addicted to the computer, but why wouldn't they be? Generation Y, also known as the echo-boom generation, has grown up digital. Forget them buying notebooks for school, they're buying laptops and zip disks instead. Times have changed and so have their focuses. Contrary to popular belief, this new generation sets their sights high t... ...ey're riding high on the technology wave, too, and are a hardworking, focused people. At this point they definitely have the upper hand by understanding the technology the rest of the world can't grasp. Upon closer evaluation, Generation Y may even have a certain charisma that the baby boomers lack. Bibliography: Works Cited Alch, Mark. "Get ready for the net generation." Society for the Advancement of Education 2000. 7 November 2000. Article 15. 7 November 2000. "New survey shows that most young adults have strong opinions on top campaign issues, but many still not planning to vote." 25 September 2000. The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation 11 November 2000. Raising Student Achievement. White House. 11 November 2000. What happened the year you were born? SLACK Incorporated. 11 November 2000.

Paper Chromatography

The Hydrogen Atom Spectrum Evan J. Collins C. N. Peck June 16, 2009 INTRODUCTION MATERIALS _Emission Spectra an the Electronic Structure of Atoms_ Spectroscope Black Ink Pen Graphite Pencil Notebook Mercury Spectrum Hydrogen Spectrum PROCEDURE Calibration of the Spectroscope: Using the spectroscope the four most visible lines on the scale were measured. Violet, blue, green, and yellow were all visible. With the ink pen the measurements were recorded. A known wavelength (nm) vs. measured lines (cm) graph was then drawn from the measurements. Observation and Measurements of the Hydrogen Spectrum: Using the calibrated spectroscope the scale position of the observable lines of the hydrogen emission spectrum were measured. Red, turquoise, violet, and purple were all visible. Using the measurements and the calibration graph the wavelength of the lines were determined. The relative error was calculated using: Accepted Value Values of wavelength for the hydrogen atom spectrum were converted to kJ/mol. Using a form of the Rydberg equation, the Rydberg constant was calculated for each of the lines measured. This constant was used to then calculate percentage error. Data Calibration of the Spectroscope Observations and Measurements of the Hydrogen Spectrum CALCULATIONS (Convert wavelength values to corresponding energy in kJ/mol) 680 x 10^-9 2. 92 x 10^-19 J x (6. 022 x 10^23) / (1000 J) = 176 kJ/mol (Calculate the value of the Rydberg constant) (1/680)/(. 25-. 30) = . 00147059/(. 25000-. 11111)= 0. 0105042 x 10^-7 = Rh= 105,040 cm ^-1 (Calculate Percentage Error) 105040 – 109678 X 100 = 4. 23% Error 109678 DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION